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Pedestrian Psychology and Safety

Compiled and assembled by Dr. Leon James

Did you know these facts?

• Over one million pedestrians were killed or injured in the US in 1995, according to DOT Bureau of Transportation Statistics at: http://www.bts.gov/
  
• In 1994, 18 percent of all pedestrian fatalities were older people.
  
• Males accounted for 67 percent of total fatalities, 68 percent of all pedestrian fatalities.
  
• In 1994, there were 5,472 pedestrian fatalities which represented 13 percent of total fatalities.
  
• On average, a pedestrian is killed in a motor vehicle crash every 96 minutes.
  
• More than one-third of children between 5 and 9 years old killed in motor vehicle crashes were pedestrians.
  
• Nearly 100,000 pedestrians are injured in motor vehicle accidents each year in the United States, with a majority of these accidents taking place in urban areas.

Even though there are fewer drivers on U.S. roads at night, the risk of death in a traffic accident more than doubles when darkness falls, the government's national accident database shows. In 1996, there were more than 18,000 drivers or passengers killed in nighttime car crashes. About 3,500 pedestrians and 368 bicyclists also were killed. See original story.

On average, a pedestrian is killed in a traffic crash every 107 minutes.

There were 85,000 pedestrians injured in traffic crashes in 1999.

On average, a pedestrian is injured in a traffic crash every 6 minutes.

In 1999, almost one-fourth (24 percent) of all children between the ages of 5 and 9 years who were killed in traffic crashes were pedestrians.

Nearly one-fifth (19 percent) of all traffic fatalities under age 16 were pedestrians, and 7 percent of all the people under age 16 who were injured in traffic crashes were pedestrians.

Older pedestrians (ages 70+) accounted for 18 percent of all pedestrian fatalities and 6 percent of all pedestrians injured. The death rate for this group, both males and females, was 3.49 per 100,000 population — higher than for any other age group.

Table 1. Pedestrians Killed and Injured by Age Group, 1999

"About 80,000 pedestrians are injured in motor vehicle crashes annually in this country and, during the 1990s, 5,000 to 6,000 pedestrians have died each year.

Based on population, children younger than age 16 are most likely to be struck by motor vehicles. Pedestrians ages 10-15 have the highest nonfatal injury rates. Elderly pedestrians, though less frequently struck than children, are more likely to die after being struck. The pedestrian death rate per capita among people age 65 and older has decreased since 1950, but this age group still has the highest pedestrian death rates. Starting at age 65, the rate is nearly twice as high as it is for people younger than 65. Males are more likely than females to be in pedestrian collisions. Males constitute about 70 percent of pedestrian deaths each year.

A substantial number of pedestrian injuries occur at intersections. About 39 percent of nonfatal injuries and 18 percent of fatal injuries to pedestrians occur in collisions with motor vehicles at intersections. In urban areas, the proportion of pedestrian injuries at intersections is greater than in nonurban areas. An examination of fatal pedestrian crashes in four U.S. cities found 40 percent of those involving vehicles other than large trucks happened at intersections, and 51 percent of fatal pedestrian crashes involving large trucks occurred at intersections. A substantial number of urban pedestrian crashes involve turning vehicles, particularly left-turning vehicles.

Most pedestrians are struck by the front of a passenger vehicle. What happens next depends on a number of factors, including vehicle speed and the relative heights of the pedestrian, vehicle front end, and bumper, but pedestrians usually are not "run over" by motor vehicles. The bumper usually strikes a child's upper leg, and the front edge of the hood strikes the torso. An adult may be struck in the lower leg by the bumper and in the upper leg by the front edge of the hood. At impact speeds slower than 10-12 mph, these may be the only contacts between the pedestrian and the vehicle but, at higher speeds, pedestrians usually slide over the front edge of the hood before their upper bodies strike the vehicle."

Original here

Get yourself a DrDriving's PASS

by Dr. Leon James

PEDESTRIAN AGGRESSIVENESS SYNDROME SCALE (PASS)

DrDriving's research shows that the pedestrian aggressiveness syndrome is made of the following 15 pedestrian behaviors. This Scale can indicate how aggressive you are as a pedestrian and what type of pedestrian personality makeover you need. Ask yourself how many of these bad pedestrian behaviors apply to you on a regular basis.

1. feeling stress and impatience when walking in a crowded area (crosswalk, staircase, mall, store, airport, street, beach, park, etc.)
   

2. having denigrating thoughts about other pedestrians
   

3. acting in a hostile manner (staring, presenting a mean face, moving faster or closer than expected)z
   

4. walking much faster than the rest of the people
   

5. not yielding when it's the polite thing to do (insisting on going first)
   

6. walking on the left of a crowded passageway where most pedestrians walk on the right
   

7. muttering at other pedestrians
   

8. bumping into others
   

9. not apologizing when expected (after bumping by accident or coming very close in attempting to pass)
   

10. making insulting gestures
    

11. hogging or blocking the passageway, acting uncaring or unaware
    

12. walking by a slower moving pedestrian and cutting back too soon (feels hostile or rude)
    

13. expressing pedestrian rage against a driver (like insulting or throwing something)
    

14. feeling enraged at other pedestrians and enjoying thoughts of violence
    

15. feeling competitive with other pedestrians

These 15 bad behaviors define the pedestrian aggressiveness syndrome. They are all significantly intercorrelated. This means that if you do one of them regularly, you will also do many of the other 14 on a regular basis. You need a pedestrian personality overhaul--see above.

TEE Cards by Dr. Leon James

December 2000 From Reader's Digest The Magazine in England

A rage for every taste

You can forget road rage. Road rage is for amateurs. When people swerve in front of me at roundabouts or race away at traffic lights, I merely give an aloof but withering glance, which they never see because their eyes are peering towards that distant horizon which they plan to reach at least three seconds before I do. Anyone who is prepared to risk their life, or even their wing mirror, to achieve that goal deserves our pity rather than our rage.

But I do suffer from other kinds of rage. I get a serious attack of pavement rage whenever I encounter a cyclist, helmet thrust forward, charging down the pavement at ramming speed, scattering schoolchil-dren and little old ladies. Cyclists are always telling us how non-polluting and healthful is their chosen mode of transport. So why do they willingly risk maiming the rest of us?

Pavement rage also occurs when I'm walking the children to school along a road where the traffic moves very slowly. Some people, usually young men, like to wind down the window, crank up the music and send heavy metal reverberating at a volume which would make even Liam Gallagher murmur: "I say, old man, steady on!" In my ideal fantasy world, I'd approach the offending car, reach inside my jacket and pull out a magnet so powerful that the music on the tape would be permanently erased.

Even the most humdrum activities can increase the potential for rage. I was waiting to buy a railway ticket in the traditional queue of around 20 people, idly wondering whether they would all be served before my train left, and why 50 per cent of customers ask, "Can you tell me what platform it is?" so the clerk has to look it up, even though the electric destination indicators above the concourse list everything they could possibly need to know. Suddenly a woman with a bossy upper-class voice swept past us all, announcing, "Do you mind? I have a train to catch!"

(...)

There are an awful lot of thoughtless people about. On a train I once boldly asked some young neanderthal to take his muddy boots off the seat in front. He didn't demur, but gave me a long and mystified look. For what purpose, you could almost see him wonder, would the railway company have put a padded bench there except as a footrest?

Smokers can be another source of rage. Before I quit smoking, I promised myself I'd never become an anti-smoking bore. If anyone wants to light up in our house, we don't complain—we bring them matches, ashtrays, roller machines...But that doesn't mean I'm happy sharing my anniversary dinner in a fancy restaurant with people who think it's fine to puff away and let the smoke drift over the food which the chef has spent hours cooking (and I'll have to spend hours working to pay for).

(...)

Yes, the reasons for rage are everywhere. You just have to know where to look.

original here

Clement Cambra of Kula, Maui, campaigned to get this speed hump installed near his home on Ka Drive. He said such humps are effective in slowing down vehicles.

(...)

The residents of this Upcountry Maui community are not alone in their frustration. The speed hump program, established five years ago to combat speeders in residential neighborhoods, has been more popular than county officials ever imagined, a victim of its own success.

Swamped by nearly 700 requests for speed humps since the program started, officials now face a two-year backlog of approved installations.

"We never thought it would be this big," said David Goode, the county’s public works chief.

Described as "sleeping policemen" for their ability to slow vehicles on neighborhood streets, speed humps are blacktop slabs that gently rise 3 to 4 inches above the road. They are designed to jolt vehicles traveling faster than 20 mph. The humps are relatively easy to install, and at about $3,000 each are less expensive than other traffic-calming devices such as cul-de-sacs, barriers and traffic circles.

Humps, not bumps

Speed humps are not the same as speed bumps, which are the abrupt mounds of asphalt that bring vehicles nearly to a stop in shopping mall and apartment complex parking lots. Confusion about the two is easy to understand: Each speed hump on Maui is accompanied by a warning sign and asphalt markings that say "Speed Bump."

Originally a European concept, the speed hump has spread to communities across America, and more recently to all four counties in Hawai‘i.

But no county has embraced the speed hump quite like Maui, where $2.2 million in county money has been spent to outfit 160 streets.

(...)

Data from the Mean Streets 1998: Kids at Risk Report suggests that "per-mile basis, walking is more dangerous than driving, flying, or riding a bus or train". Furthermore, National SAFE Kids Campagin points out that children are at the greatest risk, due to their impulsive nature and inability to correctly gauge speed, spactial relations, distance and velocity. In addition, children between the ages of 5-9 seem to be at the greatest risk, comprising nearly one-third of children, pedestrian deaths. Perhaps most shocking of all, due to their small size, toddler's are most likely to be injured in their own driveway by their own parents backing up!

This week in Hawaii, the statistics became all too real when a 10 year-old boy was killed when was struck by a car as he crossed a busy street to get to school. To add to the tragedy, the 18 year-old boy who was driving the car, lost his older brother, when he was hit by a car on that same stretch of road. Is this a case of a dangerous stretch of road? Was the driver speeding excessively? Was the driver of the car simply inexperienced, too young, impulsive? Should the child not have crossed the street in the first place? All of these issues will no doubt be addressed in the coming weeks. However, in the meantime, what can one do keep themselves and their loved ones safe?

PREVENTION TIPS FROM THE NATIONAL SAFE KIDS CAMPAIGN

Never allow children under 10 to cross streets alone. Parental or adult supervision is essential until the traffic skills and judgment thresholds are reached by each child.

Always model and teach proper pedestrian behavior. Make eye contact with drivers prior to crossing in front of them. Don't assume that because you can see the driver, the driver can see you.

Cross streets at a corner, using traffic signals and crosswalks whenever possible. Instruct children to look left-right-left again when crossing a street and to continue looking as they cross. Children should never run into the street.

Require children to wear retroreflective materials and carry a flashlight at dawn and dusk.

Teach children to walk facing traffic and as far to the left as possible when sidewalks are not available.

Prohibit play in the driveway, in adjacent unfenced yards, in the street or in parking lots.

Teach children to cross the street at least 10 feet in front of a school bus and to wait for adults on the same side of the street as the school bus loading/unloading zone.

Advocate for the implementation of traffic calming measures, separate walkways, limited curbside parking, reduced traffic in residential neighborhoods and lower speed limits. 4/98

This information was compiled by the National SAFE KIDS Campaign (NSKC), 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue,
Suite 1000, Washington, D.C. 20004-1707
Permission is granted to distribute this fact sheet in unaltered format with credit given to NSKC.

TIPS FOR DRIVERS
Slow down!
Be aware of your surroundings (ie: school zones, crosswalks, parks, etc.)
Watch for children/pets who may dart into the street unexpectedly

I can not believe the responses of people trying to get even or ahead of people in cars. I run about 50 miles a week on the roads and occasionally encounter a motorist that is in his own world. To me the only sensible response is to get out of their way. I could use gestures and yell and scream but eventually I will lose. Unfortunately I will only lose once. I also try to wave and mouth thank you to those motorists that are considerate.

Look at the full debate here

"By doing the exercises, I was able to analyze my own behaviors, thoughts and feelings as a pedestrian. I think my experience as a pedestrian has been quite good and the exercises have helped me to recognize some of my behaviors, thoughts and feelings as a pedestrian. There were times when I get tensed or stressed such as when crossing the interjunctions. I also realize that I have quite a high emotional intelligence towards drivers because I don't commit most of the emotionally un-intelligent behaviors that others commit. I hope to be able to better manage my emotions and utilize some of Dr. James's techniques in helping me to become a better pedestrian or driver in the future."

See the report here

A report by Right of Way, a grassroots organization based in New York City, found that nearly 90 percent of pedestrian deaths in the Big Apple are caused by aggressive and careless drivers.

Using the Freedom of Information Act, the organization obtained the crash reports of 1,000 pedestrian fatalities in the city from 1994 to 1997. Among their findings:

Driver's are at fault in almost 90% of pedestrian fatalities. Automobiles kill more than twice as many elderly New Yorkers as murderers do. Aggressive turning through crosswalks is the single-biggest known cause of pedestrian deaths. Speeding and driving through red lights and stop signs are the next most frequent causes. Cars kill 250 pedestrians in New York City each year, including a dozen on sidewalks. Buses kill three times as many pedestrians as heavy trucks, per mile driven. "The crux of pedestrian safety is making drivers respect pedestrian rights," said Charles Komanoff, the report's author. "Most pedestrian fatalities are caused by drivers' failure to observe traffic laws, particularly the laws protecting pedestrians."

The report was released in March amid claims by city agencies that pedestrian deaths fell sharply during a crackdown on drunk driving. However, crash reports analyzed for the study showed drunk driving to be a factor in only 4% of pedestrian fatalities during the four-year period studied, suggesting that drunk driving never was a major factor in pedestrian deaths.

The organization condemned city officials for failing to focus on what they described as the far bigger problem of aggressive, violent, or otherwise irresponsible driving.

For more information, write to: Right of Way, 305 Broadway, Room 402, New York, NY 10007

January, 2000
New Mexico City Must Defend Against Claim that It Failed to Keep Sidewalks in Safe Condition for Use by Plaintiff in a Wheelchair

October 1, 1998
South Carolina DOT Owes Damages to Minor Pedestrian When Signal Interval Too Short for Safe Crossing

July 1, 1998
Research Shows Need for Countermeasures to Reduce Pedestrian Fatalities on Interstate Highways

February 2, 1998
Three-Second Head Start Gives Pedestrians Advantage at Intersections (IIHS)

November, 1997
Reactions of Visually and Physically Impaired Pedestrians to Detectable Warning Surfaces on Sidewalk Curb Ramps

November 1, 1997
City in New York Found Not Liable for Motorist's Fall in Municipal Parking Lot

November 1, 1997
State of Washington's Recreational Use Immunity Statute Upheld in Pedestrian's Death

October 1, 1997
Injured Montana Pedestrian Did Not Show Slippery Metal Cover on Sidewalk Was a Breach of Duty

October 1, 1997
Louisiana DOT Assigned Some Fault for Injuries to Worker Forced to Cross Highway from Parking Lot to Work

October, 1997
Study Compares Older and Younger Pedestrian Walking Speeds

Oct., 1997
Designing Traffic Signals to Accommodate Pedestrian Travel

August 10, 1997
Injury to Child Leaving Ice-Cream Truck Did Not Result from Dangerous Condition or Nuisance Created by California City

July, 1997
Planning and Designing Rail-Trails on Abandoned Rail Lines

May 12, 1997
New York Court Will Reconsider Allocation of Fault to Pedestrian Hit in Unmarked Crosswalk

May 12, 1997
Survey Measures Knowledge of Pedestrian Laws and Traffic Control Devices

May 12, 1997
Court to Decide if New Mexico Highway Department Should Have Foreseen Thirteen-Year-Old's Behavior in Crossing Urban Freeway

May 12, 1997
Does Enforcement of Pedestrian Right-of-Way Laws Increase Driver Compliance?

May 5, 1997
Pedestrian Fatalities on Interstate Highways: Characteristics and Countermeasures

April, 1997
Making Intersections Safer for Pedestrians

April, 1997
Researchers Study the Walking Speeds of Older Pedestrians

source here

Perils for Pedestrians  A monthly cable television series promoting awareness of issues affecting the safety of people who walk.
How to Report a Pedestrian Peril You Notice from the Web pedestrian organization.
Pedestrians in Peril:  News Articles  from the Web pedestrian organization.
PedNet Address List of Pedestrian Advocates
PedNet Mailing List Archives
Pedestrian Safety Information
National SAFE Kids Campaign
PEDESTRIANS:  Q&A: General
1997 Fatality Facts: Pedestrians
Manual of Traffic Signs
MAKING AMERICA WALKABLE
Road Safety Tips
Crossing Guards
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
Pedestrian Behavior Report
How Pedestrians Crossing in Front of My Car Affects My Aggression--A Self-Witnessing Report
My Experiences as Driver, Passenger, Cyclist, and Pedestrian
I don't mind threatening pedestrians when they're too slow
Article on Pedestrian Activism Organizations
DPS Sgt. Bob Hohn spends year in capitol helping NHTSA with aggressive driving project

NHTSA Celebrates National Walk Our Children to School Day in Fort Lauderdale, Florida

Pedestrian crashes are a serious safety problem for children that result in tens of thousands of injuries and hundreds of deaths each year. This is why NHTSA teamed up with the North Broward Hospital District=s Emergency Medical Services for Children Department (EMSC), Broward Navy Days, Inc., and Harbordale Elementary School to celebrate the Partnership for a Walkable America=s third annual National Walk Our Children to School Day on Wednesday, October 6, 1999. National Walk Our Children to School Day is an event that gives children, parents, grandparents and community leaders from all over the country a chance to walk to school together to promote safer streets, physical fitness, and good pedestrian safety habits. NHTSA is a founding, active member of the Partnership for a Walkable America, which estimates that almost one half million people from across the United States and in Canada participated in this year=s event.

Approximately 105 red T-shirted students and their parents and teachers from Harbordale Elementary School arrived at Broward General Medical Center at 7:00 a.m. to attend a breakfast and safety ceremony. NHTSA=s Chief Counsel Frank Seales gave a special message to the parents in the audience. AChildren are especially vulnerable to traffic-related pedestrian crashes,@ he said. AParents must remember this and always set a good example so that the children can learn correct, safe pedestrian skills and grow up to be healthy adults.@

Following breakfast, the students, dignitaries, and sailors were visited by the crash test dummies, Vince and Larry, who reviewed pedestrian safety rules before everyone headed out for the walk to school. The students carried miniature stop signs and donned retroreflective Aslap bracelets,@ as they walked from the hospital to Harbordale Elementary with the Broward Navy Days sailors and dignitaries as escorts. Traffic in all directions was halted by the Fort Lauderdale Police Department as a parade of sailors and students crossed Federal Highway on their educational journey to school. Almost a mile of smiles is testament to the memories these children will carry into their adulthood as a result of that special morning walk to school.

For more information about planning a National Walk Our Children to School Day event, contact Harold Thompson c/o the National Safety Council at 800/621-7615 ext. 2383. National Walk Our Children to School Day planning information is also available on the National Safety Council=s webpage at www.nsc.org/walkable.htm.

original NHTSA newsletter here

Date: Fri, 17 Nov 2000 20:23:37 -1000
From: DickBoyd@aol.com
To: pde@drivers.com
Cc: leon@hawaii.edu, jposton@rtcwashoe.com
Subject: AGGRESSIVE DRIVERS: Are you one?

You only give me two choices and you hold me to an immediate decision. Drs. James and Nahl in their book "Road Rage and Aggressive Driving" also divide the driving world into two groups, Citizen Activists and Government Paternalists.

In my opinion, there is a third choice. The aggressive party in the scenario of trying to merge in rush hour is the "government." The "government" that built and operates the road. The "government" indeed has stepped up its fight against aggressive driving. This is the same "government" that set up the design that contributes to the aggressive action. I did not say "causes" the aggressive action. I said "contributes to." If the decision were not forced on drivers at that place, at that time, would either driver be "aggressive"?

Two ideologies are reported in the James/Nahl book. The "right" or "assertive" drivers complain about too much law enforcement. The "left" or "law and order" drivers want more government intervention and regulation. What isn't reported is the "centrist" view. Why is the road built and operated to force these kinds of decisions on drivers? Especially in unexpected places and at unexpected times.

Tom Loftus, in the Wall Street Journal quotes Ron Kirby on two types of drivers. Those who have to be at a place certain at a time certain and (simplified) those who have cell phones. Should a road (transit system) be built and operated so that the travel time is consistently predictable? Or should a road (transit system) be built and operated on a first come first (dis)served basis?

The Shirley Highway (I-95/I-395) in Virginia to the District of Columbia is an example. Frank Turner had envisioned the reversible lanes as a way to satisfy the unbalanced demand. Unbalanced in time in that more people are going into DC in the morning than going out. This reverses in the evening with more going out than coming in. On a twenty-four hour basis, five lanes are needed inbound and five lanes are needed outbound. Instead of building ten lanes, there are eight lanes. Two lanes are reversible. Originally, there were two dedicated lanes inbound, two dedicated outbound and two reversible, with future expansion built in.

The road is unbalanced in space. The reversible lanes were designed to serve those with greater travel distances. Two ideological camps fought it out in forming the policy on the hours of operation and the terms of use for the reversible lanes. One camp was open play, the other was buses only. The centrist view prevailed with the compromise of allowing four person car pools during certain hours. The "Coleman" decision (by extension from I-66) required agreement between the Commonwealth of Virginia, The District of Columbia and the Federal Highway Administration. Congressman Stan Paris "knew" better, so he put a rider on the clandestine Juliette Lowe bill to allow three person car pools. That political action pretty well stopped all "public" participation in the formation of policy on operation of the reversible lanes.

The political process has more hindered than helped in the operation of the road. Occasionally, the Governor of Virginia has a lunch at which he asks offhandedly about the operation of Shirley Highway. This leads to a $2 million study to either justify the status quo or to criminalize "slug" lines because they take passengers away from "public" mass transit. Who is the aggressor in this scenario?

One fatality on the reversible lanes of Shirley in commuting time was a Virginia State Police Officer struck by a bus. Did that death have to occur? Why wasn't HOV enforced at the entrance and exit ramps? The police did not have to pursue. All the police had to do was observe the violators and pull them over in a protected area. Was enforcement done to serve as an example to the motorists in the regular lanes? If so there were several highly visible spots that could have served as deterrent points.

Better yet would have been an explanation of what the road was about. That is, Shirley Highway reversible lanes were designed to serve the population that lived in southern Fairfax County, Prince William County and places south. Shirley Highway reversible lanes were designed with a time of day preference. By the time Shirley Highway was built there were more houses and more people than in the road plan.

Can't get any more cars on the road? How about more people in each car? Un-American, it will cause the sky to fall and I won't be able to walk across the street to visit my sainted mother. HOV rules were used to get people to "share the ride." Instead, the press took the position that the HOV requirements were an imposition on the public "right" to use any road at any time under any circumstances. The same press that does not appreciate the consequences of operating a road at "capacity." [Why are there traffic signals at the entrances to tunnels into New York City?] Who is the aggressor in this scenario?

The Beltway around DC has bottlenecks. What part did LBJ play in preserving a golf course? Why is there a "roller coaster" in the Beltway? Who was the aggressor in this scenario? Why are there so many left entrances on the Beltway? Why doesn't I-95 continue into the District as originally planned? Why are there so few crossings of the Potomac River? Why doesn't Maryland encourage more ad-hoc car pools? Who is the aggressor here?

So much for the examples of the "government" being the aggressor.

The point I see drivers.com and Drs. James and Nahl making is that you should take a deep breath, relax, don't get angry, don't vent, don't provoke the other driver and practice the golden rule. Good, where is that being taught, other than in churches and your web site? What is the message in the TV story that glorifies the high speed chase and nobody gets killed in the crash? Who is the aggressor here?

I suggest that rather than venting your anger on the other driver, that you funnel some energy into correcting the road design and the road operation. How did the various states react to the State Farm Insurance Company offer of financial backing to correcting "dangerous intersections?" Did some of the states blow it off with "Our roads aren't dangerous"? Who is the aggressor here?

Thanks for the newsletter. Thanks for letting me "vent" on-line rather than on-road.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Date: Sun, 19 Nov 2000 19:55:56 -1000
From: DickBoyd@aol.com
To: jposton@rtcwashoe.com
Subject: Pedestrian Visibility

In a message dated 11/19/00 12:38:03 AM Pacific Standard Time, RenoTraffic@egroups.com writes:

<< 25% of drivers striking a pedestrian at night claim that they never saw the pedestrian before impact. >>

Jim Poston, Do you know of any source or information on the "rest of the story"?

This statistic could imply that the pedestrian is in error at least 25% of the cases by not being visible enough. Or was the driver distracted or disabled? One of the Shirley Highway fatalities was a pedestrian that was struck several times by motorists that did not see him. Was he a suicide by being on a road on which people did not expect pedestrians? Another fatality in the Washington, DC area was a teenager that got angry with the family and began walking on an unlit road. She was killed by an intoxicated hit and run attorney. Another fatality was a high school student at Halloween. He was walking on a poorly lit road in a dark costume. He was struck by an intoxicated Navy nurse.

Of the 75% that saw the pedestrian before impact, how many reacted quickly enough to prevent a fatality? What speeds were involved? What could have been done to improve pedestrian visibility? Are there some places where there are more pedestrian involved crashes than others?

A simple thing to enhance visibility at night is to carry something white. A newspaper will do, even the Reno Gazette-Journal.

Reno Traffic may not be the venue for this series of questions. Do you know any sites that would entertain such questions?

About 100,000 pedestrians are injured in motor vehicle crashes each year in this country and, since 1990, 5,500 to 6,500 pedestrians per year have died.

Pedestrians need to be aware of the danger they are in when walking in areas near traffic. The human body is fragile compared to any sized motor vehicle.

Source: Federal Highway Safety Administration

Pedestrian death rates have declined 42 percent since 1975 (from 3.5 to 2.0 per 100,000 people in 1996). Reasons for these steep declines aren’t fully known, but they probably in part reflect changes in the amount and type of pedestrian exposure.

Its possible that the amount of pedestrians has decreased because they are now on the roads driving motor vehicles. So the decline in pedestrian death rates is good, but now there are more motor vehicle crashes. It would be nice if the decrease was due to safer walkways and cross walks for pedestrians.

Source: Federal Highway Safety Administration

Each year about 7,000 pedestrians die and 100,000 are injured in traffic accidents. Young children and the elderly are more likely to be killed or injured in a pedestrian crash.

This statistic is very alarming. If driver's were more patient and allow pedestrians to cross at their own pace maybe these numbers will be reduced. It is also important for pedestrians to be careful when they cross the road and watch out for reckless drivers.

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration

Date: Sun, 5 Jul 1998 07:55:00 -1000
From: Jim Whitlow <GeM@letter.com>
To: Leon James <dyc@drdriving.org>
Subject: Yet another unsolicited comment about your Dr.Driving material...

DrDriving, you wrote: Anger is a natural emotion found in all societies, and yet, when people wait in a bank line or at the entrance of a theater, or at airports, etc., they don't suddenly start fights. Rather, they seem orderly, meek, and neutral if not friendly. But it seems to be different in traffic. What is it about getting behind the wheel that brings out hostility and rage?

I pondered that contrast many years back. Perhaps you and I are a bit more perceptive in such areas.

An earlier perception of mine helps me to analyze why people behave differently behind the wheel than they do as a pedestrian. Said perception involved the differing ways people act when wearing different clothing. For instance, a young boy who would not jump from the roof of a house may well do so when he pins a towel around his neck (Batman/Superman cape emulation). Let's face it, humans act differently under differing settings, different attire, different titles/positions, different "audiences," etcetera.

Date: Tue, 7 Jul 1998 22:42:51 -1000
From: Jason Meggs jmeggs@lmi.net
To: Leon James leon@hawaii.edu
Subject: Berkeley initiative text

DrDriving,

While the PETITION below has some controversial or not-quite-refined ideas, it's the result of lots of work and investigation. One person has made the astute observation that this all needs to be challenged at the Federal level.

NOTICE OF INTENT TO CIRCULATE PETITION

Notice is hereby given by the persons whose names appear hereon of their intention to circulate the petition within the City of Berkeley for the purpose of enacting an ordinance to accommodate alternative transportation in the City of Berkeley. A statement of the reasons of the proposed action as contemplated in the petition is as follows: Pedestrian, Wheelchair-rider and Bicyclist Nonmotorized Traveler Equality Act of 1998 This proposed ordinance would work to correct historic inequities in our transportation system in a way that would greatly benefit all of Berkeley.

The ordinance would result in a major study of transportation costs and benefits and of the extent to which equal rights to travel have been denied, and would propose a program to correct those inequities. The ordinance would work to educate our children to be better informed of their transportation future and the choices that we as a society can make. The ordinance would give new freedom to neighborhoods to reclaim land on each block for open space. It would help to provide protection from rain at bus stops, and also protect impounded bicycles from rust. The ordinance would notify the public through signage of the risks of motor vehicle travel.

Date: Tue, 3 Mar 1998 15:34:40 -1000
From: NY
Subject: pedestrians

Just a personal experience...When I took my driver's test, the instructor or whatever was getting irritated at me for slowing down or stopping when I saw a pedestrian ready to cross the road. He told me that it was not necessary to let every pedestrian cross at the crosswalks that I encountered. My thought was that what if those pedestrians were dumb enough to cross with cars coming, it would be my fault if I hit them. Pedestrians usually thank drivers who stop and that makes people feel appreciated...as far as I know.

Date: Wed, 4 Mar 1998 11:59:24 -1000
From: flemingda@ci.anchorage.ak.us
To: dyc@drdriving.org
Subject: great page

hi -- i'm a librarian in anchorage ak and just showed
your page to a group of high school kids who absolutely
loved it! thanks very much, this is a great page, and
nicely laid out too.
dan fleming

Date: Wed, 4 Mar 1998 14:08:32 -1000
From: DrDriving <drdriving@drdriving.org>
To: Andy Sawyer <asawyer@compusmart.ab.ca>

Subject: Re: Store Shopping Rage

Andy, Thanks for the interesting observation on store rage. I'm definitely interested in this. Some of my students have done observations on pedestrians but a lot more needs to be done. I have noted "children's rage" and "husband rage" and "airplane passenger rage" etc. I think anger and rage are the most common human emotions when it comes to what I call "territoriality" issues. Let me know if you come across these things.

Date: Mon, 9 Mar 1998 16:15:55 -1000
To: JR <jr@hawaii.edu>

Subject: Re: Problems students face while commuting

> I just had one question concerning driver mentality. Besides the road,
> trying to find a parking also creates a problems for students once they
> arrive at campus. This might affect them with their first several
> classes. Do you have any solutions/suggestions you can offer to
> these students so that when they arrive at their classes, they are not
> angered by the traffic and the difficulty of finding parking?
++++++++++
 

As "DrDriving" on the Internet, I advise people who write to me that driving a vehicle requires training yourself in three areas. First, your emotions and attitudes. Second, your thoughts and judgment. Third, your handling and alertness. Students would greatly reduce their driving stress by training themselves in each of these three areas.

This training includes the skill of getting yourself parked without getting upset at yourself, at other students, at campus officials, at your girlfriend, at the world! This requires emotional intelligence or affective self-instruction. Students need to apply the knowledge they have acquired in college to their daily problems and needs. In this case, it's the need for greater emotional intelligence.

Here are 10 examples of erroneous thinking which students might wish to consider, as they plan a "driving personality makeover." These tend to be some of the major errors in thinking before we train ourselves to think more rationally as a vehicle operator or pedestrian:

• That driver is stupid because he did not see me.
  
• That driver will not hit me if I pass on the right.
  
• I can squeeze between these two cars--they won't dear hit me
  
• I have the right to be mad at this inconsiderate driver
  
• All drivers are against me
  
• Campus officials don't care about my parking plight because they're heartless and only looking out after themselves
  
• How am I supposed to listen to this lecture when I'm so upset about
  
• that driver who almost knocked me down
  
• It's OK for me not to stop at this stop sign because there is no one coming and because it's mostly for cars
  
• Since I'm late for class it's OK for me to make exceptions and take more risks than I would normally take
  
• I don't have to signal every time I'm supposed to

>> most pedestrians generally seem unsure when they have left the
>> no vehicle area and wander hither and thither with little respect
>> for potentially fast (30mph) moving vehicles.

While I will concede some of this argument, there is also the point that pedestrians really do have to learn that roads are for cars, and pavements are where they themselves belong. To continually lower speed limits because people walk into the road seems to be attacking the wrong end of the problem. The problem is, that many peds are busy thinking about what to buy for supper rather than observing the roads, especially in shopping districts.

www.disastercenter.com/traffic/Pedest.html

Research on Pedestrians Killed or Injured by Age and Sex

Ampofo-Boateng, K., & Thomson, J.A. (1989). Child pedestrian accidents: A case for preventive medicine. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 265-274.

Cross, R.T., & Pitkethly, A. (1991). Concept modification approach to pedestrian safety: A strategy for modifying young children's existing conceptual framework of speed. Research in Science & Technological Education, 9, 1, 93-106.

Dewar, R. (1991). Driver and pedestrian characteristics. In J.L. Pline (Ed.), Traffic Engineering Handbook (pp. 1-28). Engelwood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Malenfant, L., & Van Houten, R. (1989). Increasing the percentage of drivers yielding to pedestrians in three Canadian cities with a multifaceted safety program. Health Education Research, 5, 2, 275-279.

Malenfant, L., Van Houten, R., Hall, R.V., & Cahoon, G. (1985). The use of public posting, prompting, and police enforcement procedures to increase driver yielding and pedestrian signalling at marked crosswalks. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 4, 295-302.

Michon, J.A. (1981). Traffic education for young pedestrians: An introduction. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 13, 3, 163-167.

Preusser, D.F., & Blomberg, R.D. (1984). Reducing child pedestrian accidents through public education. Journal of Safety Research, 15, 2, 47-56.

Preusser, D.F., & Lund, A.K. (1988). And keep on looking: A film to reduce pedestrian crashes among 9 to 12 year olds. Journal of Safety Research, 19, 4, 177-185.

Price, R.H., Cowen, E.L., Lorion, R.P., & Ramos-McKay, J. (1989). The search for effective prevention programs: What we learned along the way. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 1, 49-58.

Summala, H. (1980). Driving speed regulation and other means to reduce risks when meeting a pedestrian on a dark road. International Review of Applied Psycholoqy. 29, 498.

van der Molen, H.H. (1981). Child pedestrian's exposure, accidents and behaviour. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 13, 3, 193-224.

Van Houten, R., Malenfant, L., & Rolider, A. (1985b). Increasing driver yielding and pedestrian signalling with prompting, feedback and enforcement. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 18, 2, 103-110.

Van Houten, R., Rolider, A., Nau, P.A., Friedman, R., Becker, M., Chalodovsky, I., & Scherer, M. (1985a). Large-scale reductions in speeding and accidents in Canada and Israel: A behavioural ecological perspective. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 1, 87-93.

Zegeer, Charles V.and Zegeer, Sharon F. Pedestrians and traffic-control measures, Washington, D.C. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, 1988, pp. 1-3.

"Close following, cutting into one's lane, a pedestrian crossing in front of your car at close range, etc. will all interfere with a driver's momentary behavior goals. Interruption of behavior is the most common factor to raise arousal in a subject and to elicit emotional response." (Michon, 1980, P.407)

"It can be hypothesized that when a driver follows another car at such a small distance he must give his attention to the car in front to such a degree that he is not able to detect the pedestrian on the road side. He may not have time enough to respond to an unexpected pedestrian." (Summala, 1980, p.498) In addition to this, the result of a study says that "when meeting a pedestrian on the road side drivers do not decrease their speed. Instead, they take a driving path clearly closer to the center line. Hence, it can be seen that drivers seem to be unwilling to reduce speed for greater safety, at least when passing a pedestrian." (Summala, 1980,p.498) Sound familiar?

To me it does. When I'm on the road pedestrians are not safe. When I see a pedestrian I speed up especially if I have to turn and they're standing on the corner, I have the urge to turn before they cross the street because some of them walk so slow the time they're out of my way, the light has changed. I know I should slow down because I'm a pedestrian myself and it's not easy to cross the street with impatient drivers. Sometimes I'm so much in a rush to beat the pedestrians that I almost banged a few. I get especially angry at pedestrians that cross when they're not supposed to. The light is green so I'm going as fast as I can before it turns yellow and here is this idiot pedestrian trying to cross the street and he's not even in the crosswalk. In fact, he's far from it. If I have to wait for a pedestrian to cross the road I find myself slowly inching forward, kind of pushing them along.

Even when I'm approaching a stop sign I speed up if there's a car behind me because I don't want them to think I'm a slow driver. When I reach the stop sign I stop for only a second because I feel like the car behind me is pushing me to go. If no one is behind me, the chances are that I'll slow down and make a complete stop.

I hate to admit it but it scares me the way I drive. not to mention my passengers.

Some American drivers wonder whether we as a nation are more aggressive then other cultural groups. In fact, applied psychologists in Great Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, and Germany have noted that a high level of aggression permeates the traffic environment in their countries, estimating that between 30% and 80% of all road accidents are due to driver aggressivity. In general, twice as many male drivers show aggressive behavior in comparison to female drivers. Researchers define aggression in traffic as the intention of the aggressor to injure the other driver who is the victim. This includes physical and mental harm.

In a Dutch study, the behavior of motorists was observed, without their knowledge, at a pedestrian crosswalk located on a moderately busy street. One member of the observation team would begin crossing the street just as a car was approaching the intersection. The driver's behavior was judged by another team member as either aggressive or not aggressive. Several criteria were used:

driver fails to stop; gesticulates; yells out; sounds the horn; shakes a fist; points at the forehead; shouts invectives; speeds up and acts like running down the pedestrians.

Approximately 1,000 cars were observed and 1 in 4 motorists (25%) were judged as aggressive in one way or another.

"Law Enforcement, Pedestrian Safety, and Driver Compliance with Crosswalk Laws" by John Britt, et al. in Transportation Research Record 1485 (Transportation Research Board, 2101 Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20418)(1995). [TE7. H5 # 1485]

A four-year experiment with different approaches for enforcing the law requiring vehicles to yield to pedestrians in crosswalks had little impact on driver behavior.

Injuries from pedestrian-motor vehicle collisions were responsible for 5,500 deaths and thousands more injuries in the United States in 1993. Elementary school children, older adults over age 65, and those impaired by alcohol are especially vulnerable. The role of law enforcement is one of the least studied of all potential mechanisms for reducing such injuries, yet law enforcement is routinely recommended as one of the essential strategies for prevention. Limited traffic enforcement resources, competing departmental priorities, and a lack of awareness of the problem's significance are three common barriers to the enforcement of pedestrian laws. The presence of a strong pedestrian safety program within the Seattle Police Department and its willingness to collaborate with the Harborview Injury prevention and Research Center provided a unique opportunity to investigate the potential safety benefit of one type of enforcement.

In 1990 a coalition of safety groups, health professionals, citizen activists, and law enforcement representatives worked together to pass a stronger state crosswalk law. The law focused the attention of the public on pedestrian safety by changing the obligation of the driver from yield to stop when pedestrians were attempting to cross at legal crosswalk locations. The new law set the stage for a change in Seattle Police Department policy concerning pedestrian law enforcement as well as the initiation of a public information campaign.

Four separate traffic enforcement campaigns were conducted by the Seattle Police Department over the course of the 4 years. Although there were differences between each campaign, they all shared the following design features:

A specific area of the city was identified to receive emphasized enforcement. The enforcement consisted of increased officer presence in the designated area, with the purpose of citing drivers who violated the crosswalk law. A time line for the campaign was identified. The shortest campaign lasted 3 weeks; the longest lasted longer than 1 year. Sentinel intersections were identified within the area. These intersections were used to measure the compliance of drivers with stopping for crossing pedestrians. Data on historic traffic volumes and posted speed limits were also available for each location. Baseline measures of driver compliance were conducted before the initiation of the law enforcement efforts. Follow-up measures of driver compliance were obtained after the law enforcement effort stopped.

The authors have been unable to demonstrate that law enforcement efforts directed at motorist violators of crosswalk laws significantly or consistently increase drivers' willingness to stop for pedestrians. It appears that even with a high degree of commitment on the part of law enforcement, the expectations from such programs should remain modest. If intense enforcement efforts aimed at drivers do not elicit a positive effect at marked crosswalks, it is difficult to imagine that they will be effective in locations were the pedestrian right-of-way is more ambiguous. Although there are few standards by which to judge the relative enforcement intensities of these campaigns, the authors are unaware of any law enforcement agency that has conducted and evaluated a more focused effort.

It appears that other uncontrolled factors were responsible for the wide fluctuations in compliance. Day-to-day speed and volume fluctuations and their behavioral effects on drivers may have a greater effect on compliance than even the most aggressive enforcement campaign. Further evaluations should be encouraged. Such evaluations may be able to account for some of this variability and determine whether and to what extent there is a positive effect.

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Group Studied 1,000 NYC Fatalities Caused by Cars
Driver aggressiveness and carelessness cause up to 9 of every 10 pedestrian deaths in New York City, according to a new report by Right of Way, the pedestrian rights group. The 64-page report, KILLED BY AUTOMOBILE, studied one thousand pedestrian fatalities in the city in the past four years, and found that:

Drivers are at fault in almost 90% of pedestrian and bicyclist deaths.

Automobiles kill more than twice as many elderly New Yorkers than murderers do.

Aggressive turning through crosswalks is the single biggest known cause of pedestrian deaths. Drunken driving (New York Mayor Giuliani’s latest target) ranks 12th.

In over 90% of pedestrian fatalities, the driver is male.

Dangerous driving does not discriminate: members of all the broad ethnic categories in NYC are equally likely to be killed by cars. ]

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Are pedestrian deaths and injuries a big problem?

Is the pedestrian/motor vehicle crash problem improving? Which pedestrians are most likely to be involved in collisions? To what extent does alcohol contribute to pedestrian deaths? Where and when are pedestrians most likely to be struck? What are the most common types of pedestrian/motor vehicle collisions? Who is at fault in most pedestrian/motor vehicle collisions? How do most pedestrian injuries occur? Does vehicle design influence pedestrian injuries? How can the frequency of pedestrian collisions be reduced? Can education help reduce pedestrian deaths and injuries?

To give and overview of the observations that I made for the field project, I did three things, in general. The first was a systematic field observation, in which I listed data to determine aggressive pedestrian behavior at an interaction, for both males and females. While I did this, a the same intersection, I also observed how many vehicles drove hastily, as indicated by their crossing the stopline after the given signal light had turned yellow. Finally, I issued a questionnaire (survey) to ten UH Manoa students to determine driving behavior in relation to sex and grade level.

Specific observational techniques for pinpointing aggressive pedestrian behavior were as follows (Note: Obviously, I am assuming that aggressive pedestrians are also aggressive drivers. I did no try to validate this claim for my research project, but I felt that if people acted impulsive and impatient while walking on the streets, these actions resulting from internal emotions would carry over into the automobile, probably more so because individuals feel more powerful and in control when in the privacy of an enclosed car, as they are not exposed to societal disapproval, an idea I derived from the book, "The Motor-Vehicle Driver: His Nature and Improvement," which I also used in my research project."): The exact setting for observing the aggressive pedestrian behavior was on the western side of the university, at the intersection crossing University Avenue with Metcalf Street. I scrutinized only two of the four crosswalks at the intersection, the two which strip across University Ave. joining the UH campus with the new Burger King outlet and joining the campus to the University High campus. I selected this particular intersection over a few others that I had in mind because many people filtered into these crosswalks in order to catch buses, eat lunch at Burger King, to go home, and for a variety of other reasons, I would imagine. I figured that the more people I witnessed behaving aggressively, the more reliable my results would be.

I positioned myself on a wall in front of Burger King restaurant adjacent to one crosswalk (on my left hand side) while the other crosswalk was seen at a convenient angle, hence allowing me to analyze pedestrians in both crosswalks simultaneously without being confused. I hope that I did not look conspicuous while making this observation. I tried my best to look casual and pretend that I was waiting for a bus – for fear that I might create an experimenter effect on pedestrians – but I think my holding a pen and notebook and gazing left and right sort of gave me away. Actually, most people tended to mind their own business or were busy conversing with others, and so I usually was not noticed.

This is how I deduced if pedestrians were acting aggressively: (...)

Hauber (1980), in his study of driver reactions to pedestrians, found no significant differences between male and female drivers. Evans and Wasielewski (1983) more recently did find sex differences in driver behavior. Females were found to drive with more cautious headways. This provides evidence for sex dependent driving.
Sex was found to be a factor when looking at the sex of the pedestrian in Hauber's study (1980). Drivers showed aggression twice as often when the pedestrian was male rather than female. Male pedestrians seemed to arouse more aggression than female ones.

SAN FRANCISCO (AP) -- They look like the ghostly outlines of crime victims, and in a way, they are.

Wherever the city's streets have been marked by tragedy, Ken Kelton marks them over again. He spray paints the silhouettes of crumpled pedestrians who were struck and killed by cars.

He considers it his own symbolic campaign against reckless driving -- something he feels has already taken far too many lives.

``If there was a serial killer out there,'' Kelton said, by way of comparison, ``everyone would be jumping into action.''

So far, Kelton has made about 50 outlines. He'll keep at it, he said, until people take notice of the scourge in the streets.

``For a long time, I've been uncomfortable with the domination of the automobile,'' said, Kelton, who works as a contractor. ``A picture is worth a thousand words. I'm trying to underscore that this is life and death.''

Authorities say 29 pedestrians have been killed in San Francisco since July 1, 1998. That's about an average year for the city and far below the 41 in 1997-98, according to Nick Carr, pedestrian and bicycle safety coordinator for the city's parking and traffic department.
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All rights reserved by Associated Press Information Services.

'I did a flip, my legs sprawled higher than the car, and landed on the sidewalk' by Myung Kim Daily News Staff Writer
The last thing I saw was a big black sedan.

I was walking to work, and I was halfway across 16th Street at the intersection with Callowhill Street. The black car had barely paused at the stop sign and was barreling through the intersection up 16th Street.

The next thing I knew, I was on my back on the sidewalk.

I began to heave loud sobs, nearly hyperventilating.

I couldn't move my right leg. The left side of my jaw throbbed.

A crowd quickly surrounded me. A woman kneeled down and stroked my hand, telling me to stay calm.

I was strapped into a neck brace and a board and loaded into a fire rescue truck.

During the short ride to the hospital, I looked at the ceiling of the truck and cried. I couldn't believe this had happened to me. I didn't know how badly I was hurt, or even what exactly had happened.

I could barely walk because the car had hit me in the leg, and I was swollen and sore all over. But I hadn't broken any bones. I left the hospital that afternoon.

That night, I found out how lucky I was.

I talked to a witness, a woman from South Jersey who works near the site of the accident. She told me she had seen everything.

(...)

For the next two weeks, I felt like I had no control over my emotions.

Much of the time, I felt nervous and shaky. I had trouble sleeping. I felt good one minute and like the world was coming to an end the next minute. I would cry without notice or reason. I would muster the will to do something as small as go Christmas shopping, and drop the idea. I didn't look forward to anything.

A doctor diagnosed me as having Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. This is how he explained it:

(...)

It took about a month for me to fully return to normal.

But the accident changed me forever, for better and worse.

Because I narrowly escaped death, I now appreciate small things I took for granted before, like being excited about going on a trip and being able to have a productive day at work. I have a new appreciation for life.

On the other hand, I still run across intersections. I feel like a walking target on the streets, and I watch cars like a hawk.

The doctors visits are never-ending. And new ailments keep cropping up.

Now, I know what rage feels like. I found out who the driver is. He's a 75-year-old man from North Philadelphia.

He never said a word to me or contacted me. If he's sorry, he's too chicken to tell me. I don't think I could control myself if I ever saw him.

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